Cells constantly generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) through metabolism, signalling, and environmental exposure. This module helps you understand how cells manage these reactive molecules and maintain redox balance.

You begin by exploring how ROS forms and why they are both essential and potentially harmful. At low levels, ROS act as signalling molecules; at high levels, they damage proteins, lipids, and DNA.

You then learn how antioxidant systems, both enzymatic and non‑enzymatic, neutralise ROS. Enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase form the core of cellular defence. Molecules like glutathione act as redox buffers, maintaining a stable internal environment.

The module also explores redox signalling: how shifts in oxidation state regulate pathways involved in growth, stress responses, and metabolism.

By the end, oxidative stress feels less like a threat and more like a balance that cells navigate continuously.

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